After obtaining a PhD degree from the University of Nottingham, Mr Erkan Dinç served as an academic and teacher trainer in various universities. He previously acted as a board member for the Board of Education and Instruction, an advisory body within the Turkish Ministry of National Education. Currently, he works as a professor of history and social studies education at Anadolu University. His research focuses on historical consciousness and the development of the learners' epistemological beliefs in relation to history. More here.

The concept of the ‘European Dimension (ED)’ was first used in the resolution of the European Union (1976) - Resolution of the Council and Ministers of Education (Barthélémy, 1997; Ryba, 1995). However, Mulcahy (1991) asserts that the term with its full idea and understanding was first used in the 1977 Community Policy Statement ‘Towards a European Education Policy’. On the one hand, the ED was first used to refer to the promotion of closer relations between educational systems of different European countries (Barthélémy, 1997; Ryba, 1995). On the other, it was the 24 May 1988 Resolution of the Council of Ministers of Education which attributed the role of “developing a required kind of education to sustain Europe’s aspirations to become a more integrated social and cultural community” (Mulcahy, 1991, p. 213) to the ED. Therefore, from the late 1980’s, the concept has been used to refer to the closer integration and co-operation between the countries of Europe. The promotion of student exchanges, language teaching, international schools, teacher training, and teacher mobility were also given importance (Convery et al, 1997). 

In his preface to Margaret Shennan’s book ‘Teaching about Europe’, Maitland Stobart defines the ED as a dynamic and evolving concept that covers three distinct notions: “education in Europe; education about Europe; and education for Europe” (cited in Shennan, 1991, p. xv). This definition provided a significant framework to examine the ED (Convery, 2002). Although Stobart states that the term ‘Europe’ in this context is not synonymous with any European organisation and should be used to refer to the whole of the continent; writers and researchers have often used the term of the ED interchangeably with the educational policies and practices of the European Union (EU) and the Council of Europe (CoE) (Barthélémy, 1997; Brock & Tulasiewicz, 2000; Starkey, 1995).

Maitland Stobart defines the ED as a dynamic and evolving concept that covers three distinct notions: “education in Europe; education about Europe; and education for Europe” (cited in Shennan, 1991, p. xv)."

Convery (2002) states that Stobart’s notion of ‘education in Europe’ represents the community ideal of the EU; whilst the humanist ideal of fostering European unification is represented by the notion of ‘education for Europe.’ According to Convery (2002), Starkey’s (1995) conception of education for European citizenship; ‘thinking, feeling and doing’ for Europe is also compatible with Stobart’s framework of the ED. ‘Education in Europe’ is represented by doing; ‘education about Europe’ is embodied by thinking; and ‘education for Europe’ is represented by feeling in Starkey’s model of European citizenship (Convery, 2002). Meanwhile, Brock and Tulasiewicz (2000) developed a different idea of the ED; in their view, the ED includes European knowledge, European skills and European attitudes. In Convery’s (2002) analogy, European knowledge is the equivalent of Stobart’s notion of ‘education about Europe’; European skills correspond to ‘education in Europe’; and European attitudes are represented by ‘education for Europe’ (Brock and Tulasiewicz, 2000). Tulasiewicz (1993) additionally includes ‘commitments to European values and ideals’ that may enable pupils to live and work in the continent together with other elements. 

A similar understanding of the ED emerges from official documents, particularly from those produced by the bodies of the Council of Europe and the EU. In these documents, the ED is defined as a dynamic, evolving and multi-faceted concept and an approach to education which aims at preparing young generations for the purposes of work, study and leisure in the wider community of Europe and the rest of the world. As a reflection of this notion, the official documents generally evaluate the ED from an educational perspective. The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 is an example of this perspective, which states that the action of the community is to develop the ED in education, particularly by the learning and diffusion of member states’ languages; favouring student and teacher mobility; promoting the co-operation between teaching establishments; and developing exchanges of information, experiences, educators, and so on (Maastricht Treaty, 1992, Article 126). 

‘Education in Europe’ is represented by doing; ‘education about Europe’ is embodied by thinking; and ‘education for Europe’ is represented by feeling in Starkey’s model of European citizenship (Convery, 2002)."

Shennan (1991) asserts, the ED is sometimes used interchangeably with the terms of ‘European awareness’, ‘Europe in the curriculum’, ‘European education’ or ‘European perspective’. Furthermore, Shennan (1991) suggests that all the terms, used both in informal discussions and official documents, underline the growing significance of improving the quality and quantity of learners’ knowledge by making Europe a new focal point of their educational lives. It has also been argued that the ED should be introduced to encourage young people to acquire information about their immediate environment, community and culture, to learn about various geographical, cultural and political aspects of Europe (Savvides, 2003; Kallen, 1997); to take parts in the  processes of determining their future (Toprakçi, 2006); to gain awareness of a common European cultural heritage and to learn the responsibilities they have as Europeans (Luisoni, 1997); to respect other people’s national identities as well as their own (Fountopoulou, 2009); to develop the necessary capacities to communicate and interact with people of different cultures (Shennan, 1991); to accept the European values which lead to coexisting in peace, promote solidarity, equality, tolerance, and to value human rights (Savvides, 2008; Ryba, 1995). On the other hand, Raymond Ryba (1995) asserts that the ED in education is an element that should be added ‘across the curriculum’, wherever it can be usefully introduced, but criticises that the ED is only considered as part of history, geography, and modern language teaching in most educational contexts. 

To sum up all the above, the ED in education can be defined as an approach to education from a European perspective that aims to raise an awareness of Europe and European related issues, in order to develop positive or at least neutral/unbiased attitudes towards Europe, which will help young people form their understanding of European identity and European citizenship. As discussed in the preceding paragraphs, history teaching is one of the educational domains thought to be appropriate for introducing, facilitating, and nourishing the ED, along with the teaching of geography and modern languages (Dinç, 2006, pp. 39-40). 

The above considerations and opinions lead us to examine the roots of the EDiHT and then discuss it thoroughly. The idea of ‘Europe in history teaching’ or a ‘European perspective of history teaching’ was a phenomenon that emerged from the first Council of Europe History Conference in Calw in 1953 and carried on through to the early 1970s. During this period, European-wide works on history teaching focused on the content of history textbooks and the place of history in secondary school curricula across the continent (Slater, 1995). Starting from this first conference, there were constant discussions and disputes concerning the purpose and notion of these European-wide collective works on history teaching. While some argued that history teaching in European countries must serve for establishing peace and stability amongst European countries, others pointed out the necessity of generating an interpretation of history without the dominance and influence of political thoughts and practices (Vigander, 1967). 

The idea of ‘Europe in history teaching’ or a ‘European perspective of history teaching’ was a phenomenon that emerged from the first Council of Europe History Conference in Calw in 1953 and carried on through to the early 1970s. During this period, European-wide works on history teaching focused on the content of history textbooks and the place of history in secondary school curricula across the continent (Slater, 1995)."

Vigander (1967) states that early Council of Europe conferences led to the established understanding that it is not the duty/work of history to act or provide propaganda for European unity or find solutions to political problems. According to this understanding it must be recognised that each period of history brings with it its own unique method and tools of writing history. Therefore, history teaching requires various kinds of historical themes, perspectives, teaching methods, and approaches which underline the historical adventure of European nations. As a result, the European idea in history teaching should be understood as an approach to “signify a combination of education in humanism with an education in consciousness of European community” (Vigander, 1967, p. 71). 

From the early 1970s to late 1980s, the EDiHT was used in some official documents and other publications with reference to various features and notions of history teaching (Goodson and McGivney, 1985). During this period, EDiHT was used with reference to the place of Europe and European history in history teaching and the history curriculum; to developing an awareness of Europe by means of history teaching; and to creating a common approach and perspective of history teaching in order to reconcile the conflicts and disagreements between European countries arising from bias and prejudice which are evident in national and nationalist versions of history (Council of Europe, 1995a; Slater, 1995; Hawkey, 1995). 

The ED was first used with a direct reference to history teaching in the EU Resolution of the Council of Ministers of Education on 24 May 1988. It was stated as a part of the action programme of the Resolution “to include the ED in their [member states] school curricula in all appropriate disciplines, for example, literature, languages, history…” in order to strengthen young people’s sense of European identity and make clear to them the value of European civilisation by improving their historical, cultural, economic and social knowledge of Europe (European Commission, 1988). The Vienna Summit Declaration of 9 October 1993 puts it that the head of member states of the Council of Europe declare that, among others, the Council’s work should particularly focus on “strengthening programmes aimed at eliminating prejudice in the teaching of history by emphasising positive mutual influence between different countries, religions and ideas in the historical development of Europe” (Vienna Declaration, 1993, p. 7) in order to reinforce mutual understanding and confidence between people, nations, and states of the continent. 

While some argued that history teaching in European countries must serve for establishing peace and stability amongst European countries, others pointed out the necessity of generating an interpretation of history without the dominance and influence of political thoughts and practices (Vigander, 1967). "

Another official document of the Council of Europe suggested that “history teaching in schools can, and should, make an important contribution to education in general and, in particular, to education for democratic citizenship” (Council of Europe, 1997) by developing learners’ basic attitudes of intellectual honesty and rigour, independent and critical judgement, open-mindedness, curiosity, civil courage, and tolerance. A further official document entitled Adopted Recommendations of the Committee of Ministers of the member states of the Council of Europe on History teaching in twenty-first century Europe Rec. (2001)15 comprehensively puts forward the EDiHT as showing continuing historical relationships between local, regional, national, and European levels; encouraging teaching about periods and developments with the most obvious European dimension, especially the historical or cultural events and tendencies that underpin European awareness; develop learners’ interest in the history of Europe; and incorporating the education for tolerance, mutual understanding, human rights, and democratic citizenship (Council of Europe, 2001). 

Other than the official documents, authors and researchers working in the field of history education have also used the ED. Nevertheless, very few of them have attempted to define what they mean by the EDiHT. And very few of them have referred to one or more aspect(s) of history and/or history teaching related to Europe. Among these, Marchand and van der Leeuw-Roord (1993) and Stradling (2001) use the broadest view of the concept. According to Marchand and van der Leeuw-Roord (1993) and Stradling (2001), the EDiHT and curriculum should be introduced from a European perspective and must reflect political, social, economic, intellectual, and cultural history approaches in order to avoid the danger of the hegemony of political history. It should also show unity and diversity between European countries. (Marchand and van der Leeuw-Roord, 1993; Stradling, 2001). 

Moreover, Marchand and Van der Leeuw-Roord (1993) argue that the EDiHT should be introduced from a thematic approach, because the chronological order may cause dangers of an encyclopaedic method with too many facts and too little space for exploration and analysis of different viewpoints, and a complete coverage of European history, which can never be achieved. Stradling points out that the thematic approach must “provide opportunities for learners to compare and contrast developments in different countries or regions and to identify trends and patterns, similarities and differences” (2001, p. 31). 

the European idea in history teaching should be understood as an approach to “signify a combination of education in humanism with an education in consciousness of European community” (Vigander, 1967, p. 71)."

The European Association of History Educators (EUROCLIO) approaches the concept as a way in which “more European history is introduced from a wider European perspective as well as a search for the right balance between striving for scientific objectivity and serving educational objectives, like teaching to think critically, tolerance, democratic relationships or European citizenship” (Van der Leeuw-Roord, 2004a). Van der Leeuw-Roord (2004a) states that the EDiHT is an approach to history teaching that tries to contribute to peace, stability and democracy in Europe by creating and strengthening a ‘European [historical] consciousness’. 

On the other hand, Maitland Stobart (2003) argues that the EDiHT is a tool that serves for historical literacy (lettrism) across Europe. According to Stobart (2003) the European-wide works on history teaching have three distinguished components, ‘content, attitudes, and abilities’. The three components aim to provide an active process of history teaching to promote individual enquiry, critical and reflective thinking, and unrestricted expression. 

The content of history covers local, regional, national, European, and global contexts together with political, social, economic, and cultural dimensions of history, and stresses the importance of introducing contemporary events because it is more appropriate for attracting learners’ attention and comprehending the dynamics of today’s Europe (Stobart, 2003). The ‘content’ of history here corresponds with his notion of ‘education in Europe’. The respect for historical truth, democracy, human rights, and tolerance; the recognition of different perspectives; and the eradication of bias and prejudice and giving importance to critical thinking, open-mindedness and empathy are the attitudes that would be gained by means of history education (Stobart, 2003). These attitudes are the equivalent of ‘education about Europe’. Classifying historical documents and sources; questioning analysing and reporting the historical information obtained from that; reaching unique and different points of view under the light of those evidences; and recognising the normality of having various conclusions about the same are the abilities or skills that can be acquired through the study of history (Stobart, 2003). This also corresponds with the notion of ‘education for Europe’. 

Adopted Recommendations of the Committee of Ministers of the member states of the Council of Europe on History teaching in twenty-first century Europe Rec. (2001)15 comprehensively puts forward the EDiHT as showing continuing historical relationships between local, regional, national, and European levels;"

Under the guidance of the above discussions, it is worthwhile to settle on a comprehensive definition of the EDiHT at this point. Therefore, it can be stated that “the EDiHT is an approach to history teaching that aims to create and develop a sense of European identity and European citizenship by emphasising the political, social, economic, and cultural knowledge of Europe, and the values of humanism, democracy, and tolerance. The EDiHT endeavours to eliminate bias and prejudice from history teaching in order to reconcile the conflicts and disagreements between European countries by emphasising the historical unity and diversity of the continent. It also intends to provide a balance between the contexts of local, regional, national, European, and global history; to reflect political, social, economic, intellectual, and cultural dimensions of history from various perspectives to reflect the multi-cultural structure of Europe; and to improve learners’ intellectual and social capacities, such as the skills of empathy, critical thinking and the competence of collaborating in group works” (Dinç, 2006, p. 45).

As the above discussions demonstrate, the EDiHT is generally attributed to creating and developing a European historical consciousness and supporting a European identity and European citizenship in some sources. Thus, in order to better comprehend the concept of the EDiHT, it may be seen necessary and inevitable to examine the role and place of the EDiHT in developing a European identity, European historical consciousness and European citizenship. 

Starting in the early 1950s, the European-wide collective and institutional works have been aiming to promote and improve the purposes, content and methods of history teaching in European countries by means of developing and promoting the EDiHT. UNESCO and the Council of Europe were two important organisations leading and directing these works until the early 1990s. At the beginning of the 1990s, European-wide work on history teaching was opened to broader ground with the involvement of various other organisations, such as EUROCLIO, the International Society for History Didactics, the Georg-Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research and the Körber Foundation, to name a few. The Council of Europe’s involvement in history teaching still continues and alongside the EU provides financial support for projects and work carried out by other organisations, which is a crucial factor for the improvement of history teaching across Europe. Among others, EUROCLIO’s work has also occupied an important place since its foundation in 1993, particularly its collaboration with the Council of Europe, which has had great impact in the field of history education.

“The EDiHT is an approach to history teaching that aims to create and develop a sense of European identity and European citizenship by emphasising the political, social, economic, and cultural knowledge of Europe, and the values of humanism, democracy, and tolerance."

Although the use of these two concepts, the EDiE and the EDiHT, in European-wide institutional and academic studies have gradually been decreasing since the early 2010s, it can be claimed that the importance attributed to history teaching has slightly changed. The establishment of the Observatory on History Teaching in Europe (OHTE) in 2020 within the organisational structure of the Council of Europe is an important development displaying the current European perspective on history teaching. The works that will be carried out or commissioned by the OHTE will contribute to the development of history teaching in European countries as well as of the concept of the EDiHT.

References:

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*The opinions expressed in this work are the responsibility of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Council of Europe.

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