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Spatial development glossary

Document presented at the 14th Session of the European Conference of Ministers responsible for Spatial/regional Planning (CEMAT), Lisbon Portugal: 26-27 October 2006

Presentation

In the context of spatial development policies, a number of specific expressions and concepts are frequently used in most European states. Some of them are traditional professional expressions, while others were only recently introduced into the professional vocabulary, especially in the drafting and publication of Recommendation Rec(2002)1 of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on the Guiding Principles for Sustainable Spatial Development of the European Continent (GPSSDEC-CEMAT) or the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP)^.1 The aim of the present glossary is to provide a definition of such expressions, as well as some explanations about their use and recent evolution.

The glossary is addressed to a wide range of officials, professionals and representatives of civil society involved in territorial development policies and related activities at various levels. It aims to clarify the content of widely used concepts and expressions in this field, and the distinctions between them.

In its present form, the glossary cannot be considered as a final product. Further concepts and expressions can be added in future, according to specific demands and to the evolution of spatial development activities.

Each concept or expression in the glossary is followed by a definition, generally succeeded by comments in italics, giving further information on the origin, context, evolution or policy implications of the concept. Where concepts or expressions are related by similarity of meaning or by policy considerations, such links of affinity are indicated by “See also”. Alternative terms for the same concept are listed, with the preferred term indicated by “See”.

Many documents^,2 which cannot all be mentioned, were consulted in compiling the glossary, providing definitions, or information on the meaning, of the expression concerned. Where expressions are very close in what they signify, they have been grouped into a single category and the text illustrates the slight differences between them.

The expressions selected are presented in alphabetical order, letter by letter.

List of concepts and expressions contained in the glossary

Accessibility
Administrative level
Brownfield land
Business park
Comprehensive spatial development approach
Connectivity
Conurbation
Cross-border, transnational, inter-regional co-operation
Cultural routes
Derelict area
Disadvantaged regions
Endogenous development
Environmental impact assessment
Environmental planning
Eurocorridor
Functional urban area
Gateway cities
Governmental level
Integrated coastal management
Integrated planning
Land management
Landscape
Landscape planning
Landscape policies
Land-use planning, zoning
Metropolitan region/Metropolitan area
Natural risk/Natural hazard/Natural disaster
Participatory planning
Partnership/co-operation
Peripheral regions
Peri-urban areas
Physical planning
Polycentric spatial structure/polycentric spatial development
Public-private partnership
Public services
Region
Regional development/Regionalplanning
River basin management
Rural area/Countryside
Rural development
Rural development pole
Spatial development, Spatial development policy
Spatial development projects
Spatial planning
Strategic environmental impact assessment
Suburbanisation
Sustainability assessment
Sustainable spatial development
Technological risk/Technological hazard
Technopole/Technology centre/Technology park/Science park
Territorial cohesion
Territorial co-operation
Territorial development
Territorial governance
Territorial potential
Territorial impact assessment
Town and country planning
Urban area
Urban development
Urban design
Urban ecosystem
Urbanisation
Urban management
Urban planning
Urban renewal/Urban regeneration/Urban revitalisation/Urban rehabilitation/Urban restoration
Urban-rural partnerships
Urban sprawl
Urban structure/Settlement structure

Glossary

Accessibility
Accessibility refers to the ease of reaching destinations^.3 In addition to physical accessibility by transport infrastructure, connectivity through advanced telecommunication systems contributes to improving the intangible accessibility of areas.

Accessibility depends on the extension and quality of transport infrastructure and services. People living in places that are highly accessible can reach many destinations quickly, while people in inaccessible places can reach fewer places in the same amount of time. The progress of telecommunication has created a new form of intangible access, which plays a significant part in territorial development potential. The level of accessibility is a very important factor in territorial development, especially in the context of globalisation.
See also Connectivity

Administrative level
Administrative levels correspond to the territorial/administrative units where public administrations are established, regardless whether or not elected bodies exist at the same level.

In European states, three or four administrative levels generally exist. Very often, state and decentralised (regional, municipal) administrations co-exist at certain levels. There, where various administrative levels depend on a single governmental level (an elected body), they are generally organised in a hierarchical way.
See also Governmental level

Brownfield land
Brownfield land is land previously used for industrial (or certain commercial) purposes, which may be contaminated by low concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution but has the potential to be re-used once it is cleaned up^.4 Sometimes, the term “brownfield land” is also used to designate areas that were previously developed and have become obsolete, but are not necessarily contaminated.

Generally, brownfield sites exist in a town’s industrial section, on land with abandoned factories or commercial buildings, or other previously polluting operations. Small brownfield sites may also be found in many older residential districts, where (for example) dry-cleaning establishments or petrol stations once existed. Many contaminated brownfield sites were unused for decades, but emphasis has recently been put on decontaminating and rehabilitating them because demand for development land is continually growing.
See also Derelict area

Business park
A business park or business estate is an area of land where many office and commercial buildings are grouped together^.5 Business parks are groupings of tertiary activities, and so are different from industrial parks (manufacturing) or technology parks (research and technological development).

Business parks are generally located in suburban areas, at the most accessible points of the metropolitan road network.

Comprehensive spatial development approach
A comprehensive spatial development approach is a policy approach that considers all factors likely to influence the spatial development of a specific territory, whatever their nature (including natural factors such as climate change or natural hazards, human activities such as private investment or social/cultural behaviours, and public policies). It pays particular attention to the coherence of public (sectoral) policies that have a clear impact on the territory so as to ensure a high degree of territorial cohesion and avoid shortcomings such as insufficient synergies, sub-optimal effects of resource allocation and territorial impacts counteracting the desired spatial evolution.
See also Spatial development; Sustainable spatial development

Connectivity
The connectivity of an urban settlement or location corresponds to the number, nature and capacity of transport and telecommunication links with other urban settlements and with major networks.

The level of connectivity does not depend only on the proximity of major transport and communication networks, but also (and primarily) on proximity to points of access to these networks (railway stations, motorway junctions). The concept of connectivity applies to both transport and telecommunications.
See also Accessibility; Eurocorridor

Conurbation
A conurbation is an aggregation or continuous network of urban communities that have physically merged through population growth and expansion. It is a polycentric form of agglomeration^.

Physical proximity and the continuity of built-up areas are prerequisites for the definition of a conurbation, even though interstitial open spaces may also exist. Conurbations generally developed during the industrial revolution when settlements built up in areas with significant raw materials (especially mines) or along coastal strips (between the shore and uplands in the hinterland).

Co-operation
See Cross-border co-operation; Partnership; Territorial co-operation.

Countryside
See Rural area

Cross-border, transnational, inter-regional co-operation
Territorial co-operation between national, regional and local authorities is an important element of European integration. It aims at abolishing the negative impact of national borders on territorial development. Depending on the territorial scale, three types of co-operation are distinguished.

– Cross-border co-operation
This takes place over short distances between areas on either side of national borders. Cross-border co-operation encompasses all types of normal activities of local and regional communities, such as economic development, spatial planning, tourism, recreation, training, transport and environmental protection. Cross-border co-operation also applies in areas such as the Euroregions and, in a number of cases, areas where more than two countries converge (for instance the Saar-Lor-Lux region, Upper Rhine Triangle).

– Transnational co-operation
This more recent type of territorial co-operation stretches across national borders over large areas (Atlantic Arc, Baltic Sea Region, Western Mediterranean Region). Co-operation focuses more on specific strategic issues, such as networks of metropolitan areas, promotion of the maritime economy of coastal regions, general improvement of accessibility, large-scale measures related to enhancement of the natural and cultural heritage.

– Inter-regional co-operation
This is of thematic nature and takes place between regions of different countries, sometimes far away from each other, generally without territorial continuity. Inter-regional co-operation may comprise transfers of know-how and experience, the joint improvement of techniques and methodologies contributing to the development of regions or enterprises, or the promotion of long-distance tourism. Inter-regional co-operation may also take place between regions of the same country, with or without territorial continuity.

Cultural routes
Cultural routes are itineraries that bring together significant elements of heritage and tradition witnessing and illustrating specific periods and events of European history. Cultural routes involve also intangible and spatial dynamics, unlike a cultural landscape, which is more static and restricted in nature.

The cultural routes programme of the Council of Europe is an instrument for reading the European values that emerge from the complex of cultures and societies that constitute Europe. It is based on themes representing European values, specifically values that are common to several European countries. These themes are handled by multidisciplinary networks set up in several member states. They appear in a whole series of projects of multilateral co-operation. Examples of cultural routes are: the Pilgrim Pathways, the Monastic Influence Routes, the Celts’ Routes, Hanseatic sites, routes and monuments, fortified military architectures in Europe, etc. Cultural routes are important for the development of cultural tourism^.

Derelict area
Derelict areas are (generally urban) areas that have suffered a significant downturn, with declining or abandoned industries, closed businesses and houses, vacant shops, a degraded environment and virtually empty streets at night. Some derelict areas are also contaminated and can be considered as brownfield sites. Derelict areas are a major cause of environmental stress in urban areas.

See also Brownfield land

Disadvantaged regions
Disadvantaged (or disfavoured) regions are regions with a relatively low level of economic development, which may result from their location, especially if this is remote or peripheral, from natural and climatic conditions (polar areas, regions subject to drought, mountainous regions), from the characteristics of their population (sparsely populated regions, regions subject to emigration), from access constraints (insular regions, regions badly connected to centres by inefficient transport infrastructures). Regions characterised by obsolete economic structures (old industrial regions subject to economic reconversion) are also often considered disadvantaged regions.

Regional development policies address disadvantaged regions as a priority and support them through measures of infrastructure development, technological development, training, professional qualification and promotion of economic activities.

Endogenous development
Endogenous development is a form of economic development that relies primarily on the internal resources of a specific territory. These comprise natural resources and raw materials, skills, know-how and innovation capacity, local products (agriculture, forestry, handicraft, manufacturing) and factors attractive for the residential and tourist economy (climate, natural and cultural heritage, attractive landscapes and other amenities).

Endogenous development is the opposite of (or complements) exogenous development, which is based on investments made by foreign enterprises (from another country or region).

Environmental impact assessment
An environmental impact assessment is an analysis of the impacts that a project is likely to have on ecosystems, human health and nature’s services. The main impacts to be analysed are: soil contamination, air pollution, noise health effects, ecology impacts including endangered species assessment, geological hazards assessment and water pollution.

The EU Directive on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was introduced in 1985 and amended in 1997 and 2003. The EIA procedure ensures that the environmental consequences of projects are identified and assessed before authorisation is given. The public can give its opinion and all results are taken into account in the authorisation procedure of the project. The public is informed of the decision afterwards.

See also Strategic environmental impact assessment.

Environmental planning
Environmental planning is a relatively new discipline aiming to merge the practice of urban/regional planning with the concerns of environmentalism^.6 Environmental planning applies equally to urban/metropolitan and rural/natural areas, taking in all environmental regulations from European to local level.

The most common expression of environmental planning is the realisation of rigorous environmental impact assessments of projects and programmes of land use, economic development, transport, housing development, air, noise, water, wetlands, endangered species and habitats, ecosystems, flood zones, coastal zones and the visual aspects of such schemes.

Eurocorridor (or Pan-European corridor)
Eurocorridors are linear spaces connecting large conurbations across national borders. They are areas of rapid and large-scale spatial dynamics in a Europe of vanishing national borders. Four inter-related dimensions can be distinguished in Eurocorridors: infrastructure and transport (mainly the Trans-European Networks), urbanisation, economic development and environmental sustainability.

The rapid dynamism of Eurocorridor zones is increasingly complex, both spatially and politically. For example, political conflicts may arise from the tensions between the rapid construction of new physical infrastructure and business sites on the one hand and conservation of existing nature, landscape and rural scenery on the other. This illustrates the need for advanced spatial planning and policy-making of Eurocorridor development.

Functional urban area
A functional urban area characterises the area of influence of a city. It is generally delineated on the basis of statistics (for instance, commuter flows).

Most European countries have definitions of Functional Urban Areas or similar concepts, such as travel-to-work areas, commuting catchment areas, commuting zones or functional urban regions. In the context of the ESPON I Programme, an attempt has been made to produce an identification and delineation of functional urban areas (FUA) at European level, using a harmonised statistical definition^.

Gateway cities
Gateway cities are key entry points to Europe, typically based on major ports and/or airports, but also trade fair/exhibition cities and cultural centres likely to be the first point of call of international tourists.

The removal of national boundaries within the European Union and the EU enlargements have created new possibilities. Cities and metropolitan regions that were once on national peripheries or mainly connected to non-EU countries can build a new role as gateway cities in polycentric networks. To fulfil this potential they must be connected to trans-European networks. Global gateways are major urban conglomerations, often spread across more than one city, that have the potential to offer goods and services at an international scale. They rely on a combination of scale, excellent communications (focused around the conjunction of international air and rail terminals), high-quality ICT networks creating the context for a knowledge-rich environment, and high-quality R&D facilities (usually universities and research centres), which help to create the potential for cutting-edge research and produce a highly skilled labour force. Given such assets, global gateways provide the means of attracting international inward investment and significant international export of goods and services.

Governmental level
Governmental levels correspond to territorial/administrative units where an elected assembly, with its own administration, is established.

In decentralised countries, three or four governmental levels generally exist, while in more centralised countries, no more than two levels (national and local) can be found.
See also Administrative level; Territorial governance

Integrated coastal management
An integrated, participative territorial approach is required to ensure that the management of Europe’s coastal zones is environmentally and economically sustainable, as well as socially equitable and cohesive. It aims at resolving the conflicting demands of society for products and services, taking into account both current and future interests. Major objectives are to:

– strengthen sectoral management by improved training, legislation and staffing;
– preserve the biological diversity of coastal ecosystems by preventing habitat destruction, pollution and over-exploitation; and
– promote rational development and sustainable use of coastal resources.

Coastal zones are of strategic importance. They are home to a large percentage of European citizens, a major source of food and raw materials, a vital link for transport and trade, the location of some of the most valuable habitats and the favoured destination for leisure time. Yet coastal zones are facing serious problems of habitat destruction, water contamination, coastal erosion and resource depletion. This depletion of the limited resources of the coastal zone (including the limited physical space) is leading to increasingly frequent conflict between uses, such as between aquaculture and tourism. Coastal zones also suffer from serious socio-economic and cultural problems, such as weakening of the social fabric, marginalisation, unemployment and destruction of property by erosion. At EU level, a programme of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is being implemented.
See also Integrated planning

Integrated planning
Integrated planning (as opposed to sectoral planning) is a process involving the drawing together of level- and sector-specific planning efforts that permits strategic decision-making and provides a synoptic view of resources and commitments. Integrated planning acts as a focal point for institutional initiatives and resource allocation. In the context of integrated (or comprehensive) planning, economic, social, ecological and cultural factors are jointly used and combined to guide land- and facility-use decisions towards sustainable territorial development.

Inter-regional co-operation
See Cross-border co-operation

Land management
Land management can be defined as the process of managing the use and development of land resources in a sustainable way^.

Because land resources are used for a variety of purposes that interact and may compete with one another, all land use should be planned and managed in an integrated manner. Land management is closely related to land-use planning and physical planning. The term may also cover the activity of land assembly (land purchase by public authorities to facilitate future use, such as protection of natural areas or development for housing or infrastructure).

Landscape
According to the European Landscape convention, “landscape means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”^.

The Guiding Principles indicate that “Europe is composed of a plurality of landscapes. They are a significant part of European heritage and a witness of the past and present relationships between man and his natural and built environments. Developments in production techniques in agriculture, forestry and industry, and changes in town planning, transport, other types of infrastructure, tourism and leisure time behaviour are accelerating the transformation of European landscapes and can also have a negative impact on their quality and use. This not only concerns valuable natural landscapes, but also applies generally to all types of cultural landscapes, especially those that are an essential component of the urban environment.”

Landscape planning
Landscape planning is an activity involving public and private professionals, aiming at the creation, conservation, enhancement and restoration of landscapes at various scales, from greenways and public parks to large areas, such as forests or wilderness areas, and reclamation of degraded landscapes such as mines or landfills.

Landscape planning encompasses a variety of skills and knowledge, such as landscape architecture and design, nature conservation, knowledge of plants, ecosystems, soil science, hydrology and cultural landscapes. The provisions of the European Landscape Convention are important guidelines for the content and procedures of landscape planning.
See also Landscape; Landscape policies

Landscape policies
According to the European Landscape Convention, “landscape policy means an expression by the competent public authorities of general principles, strategies and guidelines that permit the taking of specific measures aimed at the protection, management and planning of landscapes”.

Under this general heading, various types of landscape policy can be identified:

– the European Landscape convention indicates that:

– “Landscape protection means actions to conserve and maintain the significant or characteristic features of a landscape, justified by its heritage value derived from its natural configuration and/or from human activity”;
– “landscape management means action, from a perspective of sustainable development, to ensure the regular upkeep of a landscape, so as to guide and harmonise changes which are brought about by social, economic and environmental processes”; and
– “landscape planning means strong forward-looking action to enhance, restore or create landscapes.”

– the Guiding Principles indicate that “Spatial development policy can contribute to protecting, managing and enhancing landscapes by adopting appropriate measures, in particular by organising better interactions between various sectoral policies with regard to their territorial impacts”. Various types of measures are likely to contribute to this aim, such as: the integration of landscape development into spatial planning as well as into sectoral policies, the examination and general assessment of landscapes, the implementation of integrated policies, the consideration of landscape development and protection in international programmes, cross-border and transnational co-operation, raising awareness among people, private organisations and territorial authorities of the value of landscapes, and stronger integration of landscape development into training programmes.

Land-use planning, zoning
Land-use planning is a branch of public policy that encompasses various disciplines seeking to order and regulate the use of land in an efficient way^. It means the scientific, aesthetic and orderly disposition of land, resources, facilities and services with a view to securing the physical, economic, social and environmental efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural communities.

Zoning is an important component of land-use planning. It commonly includes regulation of the kinds of activities that will be acceptable on particular lots (such as open space, residential, agricultural, commercial or industrial), the densities at which those activities can be performed and the amount of space that structures may occupy.

Metropolitan region/Metropolitan area
A metropolitan area is a settlement system consisting of a large city (with its suburbs) and its adjacent zones of influence, which may comprise urban centres of different sizes^.7 These adjacent zones are generally the so-called commuter belt. Interstitial open spaces also form part of the metropolitan area.

A metropolitan region is generally considered as a region (in the administrative or geographical sense) dominated by an important metropolitan area. In spatial terms, its extent is therefore wider than that of the metropolitan area, but in some interpretations the two concepts of metropolitan area and metropolitan region have similar meanings.

Natural risk/Natural hazard/Natural disaster
Numerous natural events represent a risk for the living, built and natural environments; they threaten human and animal life, and may cause serious damage to settlements. For that reason, human settlements have to be protected, as far as possible, against natural risks through adapted prevention measures.

According to their intensity, impact and damage, these natural events (or hazards) may be considered as natural disasters. A natural disaster is therefore the result of a natural hazard combined with human activity^.
The main natural hazards are: avalanches, drought, earthquakes, floods, land slides, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, tornados, cyclones and wildfires.

Recent decades have seen a significant increase in the occurrence, severity and intensity of natural disasters. There is considerable scope for reducing risk by the application of disaster prevention and mitigation efforts based, for instance, on modern forecasting technology (early warning systems), improved land-use and settlement planning, and safer building practices.

Pan-European corridor
See Eurocorridor

Participatory planning
Participatory planning is a form of planning activity practised by public authorities, mainly at local level, that makes possible for citizens to play a part in the planning process.

The most common form of participatory planning is consultation of the population on projects before their formal approval. More substantial and creative forms of public participation are also in use, such as workshops and public debates. The Internet plays an ever-growing part in participatory planning, either for the dissemination of information on planning projects or in the context of interactive communication systems.

Partnership/co-operation
The governance of territorial development policies has significantly changed since the 1980s in order to face new challenges more efficiently. In the past, territorial governance was mainly hierarchical, often of a top-down nature, but a number of factors have led to the adoption of more flexible approaches in which co-operation and partnership play a more important part, especially in the following fields:

– vertical and horizontal relationships in public administrations responsible for territorial planning and sectoral policies with territorial impacts, partly substituting for authoritarian relationships and enabling the progressive coherence of public policies with the aim of producing added value for territorial cohesion and sustainability;
– relationships between public administrations and bodies representing civil society, with the aim of strengthening the adherence of civil society to spatial planning objectives, harmonising public policies with private decisions, in particular in the field of investment, and smoothing out potential conflicts of interest;
– relationships between urban and rural areas, with the aim of developing rural areas with the aid of services provided by urban entities, alleviating the pressure that metropolitan areas exert on surrounding rural areas and making the various functions of urban–rural relations sustainable;
– cross-border and transnational relationships, aiming at harmonising territorial development policies across national borders.

Peripheral regions
Peripheral regions are areas far away from the main urban and economic centres, either within a country or on the European continent. Peripheral regions generally have lower economic potential and accessibility than more central ones. Regional development policies pay specific attention to peripheral regions.

Peri-urban areas
Peri-urban areas are areas in some form of transition from strictly rural to urban. These areas often form the immediate urban–rural interface and may eventually evolve into being fully urban. Peri-urban areas are places where people are key components: they are lived-in environments.

The majority of peri-urban areas are on the fringe of established urban areas, but some are clusters of residential development within rural landscapes. Peri-urban areas are most frequently a result of suburbanisation or urban sprawl.
See also Suburbanisation

Physical planning
Physical planning is strongly related to land-use planning, urban design, transport planning, landscape planning and building plans. It addresses activities that immediately affect or decide the physical structure and environment of cities and neighbourhoods (unlike economic planning or social planning).

Polycentric spatial structure/Polycentric spatial development
A polycentric spatial structure refers to the morphology of the settlement system. It assumes that a plurality of urban agglomerations of similar size exist at various levels of the urban hierarchy, as opposed to situations where a single large urban centre dominates each level and even eliminates the presence of intermediate levels. The principle of polycentric spatial structure and development can be applied at various geographical scales, from European to the regional.

The concept of polycentric spatial development was first introduced into the European debate on spatial development policies by the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) and was taken over into the Guiding Principles. Polycentricity of settlement systems is considered to favour sustainable territorial development as well as the reduction of territorial imbalances.
An important aspect of polycentricity is that it is valid at different scales:

– applied at European scale, it should enable the emergence of alternative global economic integration zones likely to counteract the polarisation effects of the “pentagon” of London–Paris–Milan–Munich–Hamburg;
– at intermediate scale (for instance, at national scale or in transnational areas), polycentricity should lead to a balanced settlement system with growth benefiting several metropolitan areas of various sizes and not only national capital cities;
– at regional level, polycentricity should ensure that the benefits of growth and development also reach medium-sized and smaller towns, so as to maintain and increase vitality in the more rural parts of the region.

CEMAT Resolution No. 1 (2006) on “Polycentric development: promoting competitiveness, enhancing cohesion” indicates that polycentricity is an umbrella theme that encompasses different conceptual debates. In order to favour polycentric development, spatial development policies should:

– promote functional complementarity between government levels;
– take into consideration the existence of overlapping polycentric networks;
– favour an integrative cross-sectoral, multi-scale policy;
– strengthen institutional capacity-building;
– take into consideration the existence of soft instruments that may allow more effective use of infrastructural, organisational and human resources;
– target growth potentials, understanding cities as economic drivers, essential to endogenous regional development; and
– promote adapted administrative and organisational structures with competency to support equitable sharing and redistribution of diverse regional resources, and absorb the burdens and negative impacts of spatial decisions that often traverse local administrative borders.

Public–private partnership
A public–private partnership is a formal agreement (generally a contract) by which a public body (government, regional or local authority) and one or more private entities decide to co-operate to build assets or deliver services.

The choice of private entities is generally made on the basis of competition. The role of the public entity is to ensure that public interests are respected in the operation. For this purpose, the contract stipulates precisely the tasks to be fulfilled by the private entities, in terms of services to be delivered, capital to be invested, security norms to be respected and so on. Private entities generally participate by bringing in equity and/or operating services. There are many different forms of public–private partnership, such as concessions and BOT (Build–Operate–Transfer). In the context of the neo-liberal economic systems that prevailed in the late 20th century, numerous public–private partnerships were created throughout Europe.

Public services
“Public services” is a generic term to designate services provided (directly or indirectly) by public authorities to citizens. Public services are delivered in a variety of fields, such as passenger transport, mail distribution and collection, health care, education and telecommunications^.

The principles on which public services are based are those of equality (equal access for everybody) and reasonable conditions of access (most public services are subsidised because they are not profitable). In the context of the neo-liberal economy that developed in Europe in the late 20th century, many public services were privatised (partly or totally transformed into private services), with increasing prices and less equal conditions of access across the territory. A sustained debate has resulted. In EU terminology, public services are called services of general interest.

Region
The concept of a region is multi-dimensional. It may refer to:

– a geographical area with a strong natural identity and homogeneity (for instance, a mountain or coastal region);
– a territory with a significant economic identity or homogeneity (such as an area centred around a metropolis or one characterised by specific manufacturing industries);
– a political-administrative unit governed by an elected regional assembly or administered by representatives of the national administration;
– a territory with its own cultural identity and history (seen in its language and culture)

Regional development/Regional planning
Regional development is considered as both the increase of wealth in a region and the activities leading to that increase. Regional development has a strong economic orientation, though it may also include social and cultural aspects.

Regional planning is a branch of land-use planning dealing with the organisation of infrastructure, settlement growth and non-built areas at a regional scale^. Regional planning generally contributes to regional development, but it may also fulfil other aims, such as sustainability in the environmental sense. Regional planning is generally understood as spatial planning at regional scale.

River-basin management
River-basin management refers to management of the water resources in a river basin, comprising the main river, all its tributaries and ground water. Water-management activities include prevention of flooding, control of activities that influence the level and quality of water resources (water extraction, point and diffuse pollution) and all measures necessary to maintain the ecological balance related to the hydrologic system of the basin.

Rural area/Countryside
Rural areas are sparsely settled areas without a significant large city or town. The countryside refers to certain forms of landscapes and land uses where agriculture and natural vegetation play an important part.

Rural areas are more and more diverse, as far as their economic base is concerned. While agriculture still plays an important part in many rural areas, other sources of income have developed, such as rural tourism, small-scale manufacturing, residential retirement economy and production of renewable energy. Many rural areas are multifunctional, and a number of them are under the influence of metropolitan areas and large cities as a result of improved transport and communications.
See also Rural development; Rural development pole

Rural development
Rural development is a specific aspect of territorial development. It originates in the fact that the industrial and urban society that has prevailed in Europe for more than a century has left out many rural areas from growth and development, in particular the most remote and peripheral ones. Rural development has therefore become a priority of spatial development policies in most European states.

In recent years, strong diversification of rural areas has taken place in Europe, with some rural regions benefiting greatly from the proximity of large conurbations, others from tourism and/or the settlement of retirees, while a number of other rural areas still face constraints of remoteness and marginalisation, leading to emigration. As a result, the tasks related to rural development vary and depend very much on the context and situation of the rural area considered. They comprise measures to improve accessibility, living conditions and the environment, conserve cultural landscapes and cultural and natural heritage, promote soft tourism, encourage small and medium-sized towns and large villages to act as service suppliers to their rural hinterlands, and promote high-quality regional agricultural, forestry and craft products while adopting environmentally-friendly production practices.

Rural development pole
A rural development pole is a mainly rural (but inhabited) area where social, economic and land-use changes are guided by, and required to fit in with, an integrated development plan. A rural pole is not a group of settlements, but a rural district as a whole, perhaps including one or more small towns.

The territorial development plan determines the objectives in the short, medium and long term. It specifies guidelines for development and the human and material means to achieve the results aimed at. Civil society, and public and private actors, must be partners in its development and its assessment^.

Science park
See Technopole

Settlement structure
See Urban structure

Spatial development, Spatial development policy
Spatial development refers to the changes of all kinds (economic, social, environmental, physical) in a territory.

The monitoring of spatial development (for instance, within the ESPON programme), analyses of spatial development trends and forecasting studies of spatial development are activities necessary for the preparation of spatial development policies.

“Spatial development policy” – a concept that originated in the 1990s (when the ESDP and Guiding Principles were adopted) – means a policy promoting the development of space in accordance with general principles. Various public policies (sectoral and non-sectoral) should converge if they are to fulfil these general principles, described in the Guiding Principles and the ESDP.
See also Sustainable spatial development; Territorial development

Spatial development projects
Spatial development projects are projects, generated or controlled by public bodies, that contribute positively to territorial development at different scales. Such projects cover infrastructure works, economic promotion or development of specific areas, urban rehabilitation or restoration of damaged ecosystems.

Generally, spatial development projects are elements of more comprehensive spatial development strategies. Some spatial development projects are top-down in nature and involve mainly public authorities, but others are more bottom-up and may have a large involvement by civil society and private interests (such as a public–private partnership).

Spatial planning
Spatial planning refers to the methods used by the public sector to influence the distribution of people and activities in spaces at various scales as well as the location of the various infrastructures, recreation and nature areas.

Spatial planning activities are carried out at different administrative or governmental levels (local, regional, national); co-operation in this field is also implemented in cross-border, transnational and European contexts.

Strategic environmental impact assessment
A Strategic Impact Assessment does not refer to the likely impacts of an individual project (as in the case of the Environmental Impact Assessment), but to the likely environmental impacts of certain plans and programmes.

The SEA Directive (EU legislation), adopted in 2001, ensures that the environmental consequences of certain plans and programmes are identified and assessed during their preparation and before their adoption. The public and environmental authorities can give their opinions, and all results are integrated and taken into account in the course of the planning procedure. After the adoption of the plan or programme, the public is informed about the decision and the way in which it was made. In the case of likely transboundary significant effects, the affected member state and its public are informed and have the opportunity to make comments, which are also integrated into the national decision-making process. SEA aims to contribute to more transparent planning by involving the public and integrating environmental considerations, thus to achieve the goal of sustainable development.

Suburbanisation
Suburbanisation is a process by which suburbs develop around large cities and metropolitan areas. The process is generated by growth (increase in total population) and by internal re-structuring of cities.

Many residents of larger cities no longer live and work in the same urban area, choosing instead to live in suburbs and commute to work in other areas. Suburbs are inhabited districts either on the outer rim of a city, outside the official limits of a city or even beyond the outer elements of a conurbation. The suburbanisation process is often assimilated to that of urban sprawl, especially when it comes to apportioning blame for growing traffic problems and the destruction of natural landscapes and resources^.8
See also Urban sprawl

Sustainable spatial development
The concept of sustainable spatial development is the main objective of the Guiding Principles. Sustainability is related to long-term approaches: the benefits provided by spatial development policies should have a long-lasting character; they should not be jeopardised by important interferences (between public policies or sectors of activity) being overlooked. Four dimensions of territorial sustainability have been identified in the Guiding Principles: economic, social, environmental and cultural sustainability.

Because numerous processes are challenging the sustainability of our common European future, policies aiming at sustainable spatial development have to achieve a variety of tasks, such as reducing disparities, supporting balanced polycentric development, providing measures for the revitalisation of declining settlements, increasing the efficiency of transport and energy networks, preventing or reducing the potential damage from natural hazards, protecting and improving the natural and built environments, promoting environmentally-friendly practices in agriculture and forestry, achieving a balance between preserving existing cultural heritage, attracting new investment, supporting existing living and working communities in urban and rural areas and increasing public participation in spatial development approaches^.9
See also Comprehensive spatial development approach; Spatial development

Sustainability assessment
A high percentage of the cost and environmental burden of any product or process is determined in the early stages of design, yet the impact may last for 20 years or more. Sustainability assessment is a methodology that helps enterprises to make products and services more sustainable.

The life-cycle assessment of products aims to reach a better understanding of their social, economic and environmental impact. Sustainability Impact Assessments are also being carried out in a wider perspective. The European Union, for instance, carries out SIAs for the negotiation of its major multilateral and bilateral trade agreements^.10 Public policies, as well as public–private partnerships, can also be subject to similar procedures likely to identify their long-term economic, social and environmental impacts.

Technological risk/Technological hazard
A technological risk is necessarily related to human activities in fields such as manufacturing and energy production, transport, buildings or public works. Risks from industrial, nuclear, mining or subterranean activities, the transport of hazardous substances (by land, river or sea) or the threat of a dam rupture are all considered major technological risks.

Preventive action against technological risks, aiming at limiting the occurrence of technological hazards as well as their potential impact, is prescribed in the relevant national legislation. This may include measures pertaining to spatial development policies, especially land-use policy.

Technopole/Technology centre/Technology park/Science park
A technopole (also called technology centre, technology park or science park) is an area where numerous private and public activities pertaining to research and development, technological development, technology transfer, high-level scientific education and high-tech manufacturing or services are concentrated. In many cases, technopoles encompass one or several specialised clusters consisting of high-tech enterprises, incubators for start-ups, a business and innovation centre and consultancies.

The principles governing technopoles are the development of synergies between the various stakeholders on the site (enterprises, R&D activities, start-ups, services), the type of activities allowed on the site (eliminating, for instance, warehouses or polluting industrial activities), promotion and support by public authorities (facilitating land acquisition and development, supporting research and education) and the availability of an outstanding working environment, which is important for the image of the enterprises and organisations on the site.

Territorial cohesion
The concept of territorial cohesion is an overarching objective of territorial development in the Guiding Principles and the ESDP. Although it is included at the highest level in official documents, the concept of territorial cohesion has so far not been officially defined. It is generally considered to complement the objectives of economic and social cohesion, and aims at promoting a harmonious and homogeneous development of an entire territory. There is wide agreement that territorial cohesion is a multi-dimensional concept with at least three main components:¹¹

– territorial quality: the quality of the living and working environment; comparable living standards across territories; similar access to services of general interest and to knowledge;
– territorial efficiency: resource efficiency in energy, land and natural resources; competitiveness of the economic fabric; attractiveness of the territory; internal and external accessibility; ability to resist de-structuring forces related to globalisation; territorial integration and co-operation between regions;
– territorial identity: presence of “social capital” and ability to develop shared visions of the future; local know-how and specificities; productive “vocations” and competitive advantage of each territory.

Territorial co-operation
Territorial co-operation is understood as the development of joint activities related to territorial development policies for areas belonging to various administrative jurisdictions. Territorial co-operation is particularly important along national borders, but it is also relevant between administrative units of the same country. The aim of territorial co-operation is to facilitate territorial integration and to promote more competitive and sustainable forms of territorial development than would result from individual, segmented territorial development policies without co-operation. Territorial co-operation is driven by public authorities at the various levels, but this may be in association with other types of stakeholders (NGOs, private sector, civil society).

See also Cross-border, transnational, inter-regional co-operation

Territorial development
Territorial development is understood as the process by which the geography of territories inhabited by human societies is progressively transformed. It involves physical elements (such as infrastructure, landscapes and townscapes), but also the territorial structure or settlement pattern, that is, the geographic distribution of population and human activities, in particular the size of and relationships between cities.

Territorial development is a comprehensive concept also used as an objective of public policies (“territorial development policy”). This comprehensive character results from the fact that it does not aim only at economic growth in the respective regions, but also at sustainability in its economic, social, environmental and cultural aspects. Territorial development has therefore a highly qualitative dimension requiring substantial amounts of coherence in the conception and implementation of public policies.

It strongly reflects the present context of Europe, characterised by low growth rates and strong regional imbalances. In the period of strong growth in the post-war decades, the main tasks of public policies for territories were to guide the growth process by land-use regulation, provision of infrastructure and the use of incentives to attract investment (the related policy concepts were “territorial planning”, “aménagement du territoire”, “Raumordnung”, “Ordenacion del territorio”, etc.), but developing the territory has become a generalised priority in order to provide employment and services, and reduce territorial imbalances.

Territorial governance
Territorial governance is the way spatially-relevant policies (taken together) are applied. This global concept is assessed by its contribution to achieving the objectives of spatial development policies. It is the result of the quality of multi-level and cross-sectoral relationships in the field of public policies. It refers to horizontal and vertical co-operation in shaping and implementing these policies. In this respect, the principles of subsidiarity and reciprocity, advocated in the Guiding Principles, are of particular relevance.

“Territorial governance can be further understood as the emergence and implementation of innovative shared forms of planning and managing socio-spatial dynamics. … sound territorial governance aims to manage territorial dynamics by indicating the spatial consequences of various policies planned by the public and private sector. It aims to negotiate commonly agreed objectives and a framework of shared responsibilities by the use of spatial development strategies and policies”^.12 At its simplest level, territorial governance can therefore be understood as the cultural embeddedness and practical application of the general principles of governance to spatial development policies.

Improving the quality of territorial governance often requires strengthening the role of regional and local authorities, to ensure the coherence and increased efficiency of public policies applied on the territory.

Territorial potential
It has been recognised that each area has a specific potential (or capital) distinct from that of other areas. This potential is determined by a series of factors, which may include the area’s location, size, endowment with factors of production and infrastructure, climate, natural resources, quality of life, quality of the environment, the combined economies of its cities, business incubators, industrial districts or other business networks that reduce transaction costs. Other components are more social and cultural in nature: factors such as traditions, understandings, informal rules that enable economic actors to work together in conditions of uncertainty, solidarity and mutual assistance. The concept of territorial potential includes an even more intangible dimension: the combination of institutions, rules, practices and actors (such as producers, researchers and policy makers) that make a certain creativity and innovation possible^.13

The concept of territorial potential (or capital) underlies endogenous growth theories and strategies that have been developed and applied since the 1970s as a reaction against the instability or negative impact of exogenous factors causing unemployment, closure or relocation of businesses. In recent years, the concept of territorial potential has become topical again because of increasing international and inter-regional competition in the context of European integration and accelerating globalisation.

Territorial impact assessment
Territorial impact assessment aims to identify the impacts that all types of spatially relevant public policies, measures and projects may have on a territory, especially on territorial sustainability and cohesion. In this respect, the territorial impacts to be identified may be economic, social, environmental and cultural. They may be related to changes in accessibility, biodiversity, locational preferences, employment opportunities or quality of life.

Territorial impact assessments are required because numerous sectoral policies/projects influence the way a territory develops without necessarily helping to achieve the objectives of spatial development policies.

Ex-post territorial impact assessments show how policies applied in the past have influenced the development of the territory and what lessons can be drawn from this. They are useful for raising awareness as well as for improving assessment methods.

Ex-ante territorial impact assessments aim to anticipate the potential impact of future policies and so help decision makers choose between policy options.

The method of territorial impact assessment is of a complex nature because of the numerous possible interferences to be considered. It is therefore still being refined and improved.

Town and country planning
This expression originated in the UK (the Town and Country Planning Act of 1947 was adopted in the post-war period in response to industrialisation and urbanisation) but has been widely used throughout Europe and comprises a sector of public policies encompassing various activities, such as land-use planning, urban design, landscape planning, urban renewal, transport planning and the development of facilities and utilities. The global aim of town and country planning is to maintain a balance between economic development, social welfare and the environmental quality.

Transnational co-operation
See Cross-border co-operation

Urban area
An urban area physically forms part of a town or city; it is characterised by a high proportion of built-up surface, high density of population and employment and significant amounts of (transport and other) infrastructure, as opposed to a rural area. Urban areas may also include non-built-up, green areas generally used for recreational purposes by urban dwellers.
See also Urbanisation; Urban development; Rural area

Urban development
As in the case of spatial development, urban development can be understood as the evolution of a specific (urban) area, or as the various activities contributing to development of this area. Promoting urban development means acting to enhance the various economic, social, environmental and cultural potentials of cities and urban areas.

This involves a wide range of public policies based on multidisciplinary knowledge. The involvement of civil society through participatory actions and partnerships is also essential to tackle the complex issues of urban development. In recent years, the objectives of sustainability and promotion of inclusiveness and social cohesion have become topical in urban development strategies.

Urban design
Urban design is a traditional discipline of urban planning. It was particularly in fashion when urban planning was essentially expressed by building plans. Urban design was also widely used in planning new towns, encompassing the layout of entire cities. More recently, it has refocused on the planning of public spaces, including the totality of spaces that are used freely every day by the general public, especially streets and parks^.14

The design, construction and management of public spaces require interdisciplinary inputs (engineering, ecology, local history, transport planning, architecture, etc.) as well as consultation and negotiation with a variety of levels and stakeholders.

Urban ecosystem
An urban ecosystem is the community of plants, animals and humans that inhabit an urban environment. Although it is an area physically dominated by built structures like buildings, roads, sewers and power lines, it also contains a rich patchwork of green spaces (parks, yards, street planting, greenways, urban streams, commercial landscaping and unbuilt lots) that are the living heart of the urban ecosystem.

As separate and fragmented as these elements sometimes appear, they work together as a single organism. Urban ecosystems are generally highly disturbed systems, subject to rapid changes in soil and plant cover, as well as temperature and water availability. The plant life in urban ecosystems is different from that in natural ecosystems too. Even in the city’s natural or semi-natural areas like parks, the vegetation is often highly altered, with many non-native and invasive species. One extremely important issue for urban ecosystems is their ability to provide healthy environments, for the natural ecosystem and for citizens. Urban ecology, a relatively recent discipline, studies and monitors urban ecosystems (factors allowing wild plants and animals to survive in built environments, the effects of urban development patterns on ecological conditions) and attempts to shape the conditions of healthier and better managed communities^.15

Urbanisation
Urbanisation is the long-term process by which urban areas grow and an increasing proportion of the population lives in towns and cities.

In Europe, urbanisation started with the beginning of the industrial revolution in the 18th century and has spread across the continent over two centuries in heterogeneous ways. The process has various phases (urbanisation, de-urbanisation or counter-urbanisation, re-urbanisation) which have reached different countries at different times, according to their geographical and historical situation. The level of urbanisation is the proportion of the population of a country (or region) living in towns. The urbanisation rate is the increase in the urban population as a proportion of the total population over a period^.16 Urbanisation of a region has profound effects on its economy and ecology. There are different forms (or patterns) of urbanisation – the concentration of human activities, settlements and social infrastructures – such as monocentric settlements, polycentric settlements, compact cities and suburbs.

Urban management
In the general context of spatial development policies, urban management comprises a set of public policies developed and applied at local or metropolitan level addressing a wide range of issues in such fields as land-use planning, transport, housing, urban renewal, conversion of derelict land and brownfield sites, environmental protection, waste management, energy and water supply, provision of services and facilities, economic development, social cohesion and integration, protection and enhancement of cultural heritage, and cultural promotion and development.

Major urban challenges in Europe increasingly tend to consist of complex interlinkages between deprivation, low income, unemployment, poor educational and skill levels, sub-standard housing, inadequate urban fabric and facilities, and urban sprawl.¹⁷ Cities have also to promote their competitiveness and their image, in order to develop functions with high economic added value and to attract investment. A particular task of urban management is the revitalisation of declining inner-city areas and problematic suburban areas, addressing not only the physical and environmental characteristics, but also the economic and social resources of the residents, and their socio-cultural integration. Approaches incorporating housing provision and improvement within more integrated, area-based, participatory regeneration programmes are essential elements of urban management policies.

Urban planning
Urban, city or town planning is the planning discipline dealing with the physical, social, economic and environmental development of metropolitan regions, municipalities and neighbourhoods^.18 Urban planning is expressed in the drafting of land-use and building plans, and local building and environmental regulations.

Historically, (19th-century) urban planning was influenced by the newly formalised disciplines of architecture and civil engineering which began to codify both rational and stylistic approaches to solving city problems through physical design. During the 20th century, the domain of urban planning was expanded to include economic development planning, community social planning and environmental planning.

Urban renewal/Urban regeneration/Urban revitalisation/Urban rehabilitation/Urban restoration

Cities are confronted by the ageing of their fabric and changes in their economic functions and social characteristics. To maintain a harmonious living environment, buoyant economy and balanced social structure, various public (and sometimes public–private) activities are necessary. Three types of action may be distinguished.

– urban renewal
This aims at replacing impoverished urban neighbourhoods and derelict areas by large-scale projects that include housing, services, transport systems, recreation areas and other elements. Sometimes, the cost of urban renewal to living communities is high, and this type of activity is nowadays less frequently carried out than some decades ago.

– urban regeneration and revitalisation
These plans aim to transform the obsolete socio-economic base of an urban area and make it more sustainable by attracting new activities and companies, modernising the urban fabric, improving the urban environment and diversifying the social structure.

– urban rehabilitation and restoration
Such schemes are aimed mainly at regenerating and conserving built heritage or the urban environment, including ecosystems. As well as refurbishing historical buildings and townscapes, rehabilitation includes the modernisation and upgrading of technical facilities and aims to meet environmental and security norms and standards.

Urban-rural partnerships
Rural-urban interactions can be defined as linkages across space (such as flows of people, goods, money, information and waste) and linkages between sectors (for example, between agriculture and services and manufacturing). In broad terms, they also include “rural” activities taking place in urban centres (such as urban agriculture) and activities often classified as “urban” (such as manufacturing and services) taking place in rural settlements.

In recent decades, urban–rural interaction has intensified throughout Europe in terms of commuter flows, recreation and leisure activities, former urban dwellers settling in rural areas, and the location of usually urban functions and activities in rural areas. In other words, the urban influence of cities on rural areas has increased. Rural–urban linkages are important to achieve balanced economic development and to reduce the vulnerability of less favoured rural regions. Rural–urban interactions have often critical influences on the use and management of natural resources, especially in the peri-urban interface. In order to promote harmonious territorial development, urban–rural partnerships are being set up between urban and rural communities (generally represented by local authorities, but also involving NGOs and civil society) aiming at providing services, protecting natural and environmental resources, favouring regular contacts between urban and rural communities, and developing economic synergies.

Urban sprawl
Urban sprawl is the unplanned, uncontrolled spread of urban development onto land adjoining the edge of a city. The term is also used for the expansive, rapid and sometimes reckless growth of a greater metropolitan area over a large area. Urban sprawl is characterised by several land-use patterns, such as single-use zoning (commercial, residential, industrial), car-dependent communities, low-density land use but larger-scale development than older areas (wider roads, larger stores, extensive car parks) and lack of diversity in design, sometimes giving the sense of a uniform urban environment^.19

See also Suburbanisation

Urban structure/Settlement structure
A morphological/functional appraisal and analysis of towns, cities and other settlements makes it possible to identify their structure. The urban structure is characterised by the main elements and functions inside the urban area, such as the morphology of the city (compact or dispersed, single nucleus or multiple nuclei), the distribution of urban areas according to age (medieval, post-war, etc.), the disposition of main functions (commercial, housing, industrial, recreation, etc.), social distribution and organisation (poor and derelict areas, gentrified areas, middle-class areas, areas with a high proportion of immigrants, etc.), and the main characteristics of transport and communication axes (road system, public transportation system).

Settlement structure refers to the distribution of towns, cities, villages, hamlets – in fact, all settlement – on a wider scale. We can distinguish: agglomeration (various settlements organised around a dominating metropolitan area), dispersed settlement (homogeneous distribution of small and medium-sized urban entities over an area), a polycentric settlement system (organisation of a region around several urban entities), a network of cities (urban entities that are strongly interdependent in function without physical continuity) and a conurbation (a grouping of various urban entities close to each other).

Zoning
See Land-use planning

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