Citizenship is a fluid and sometimes contested notion because traditions and approaches to citizenship vary across history and across Europe, according to different countries’ histories, societies, cultures and ideologies.

All these different ideas about citizenship live together in a fruitful – but also troublesome – tension that has economic, social and political implications. Narrow understandings of citizenship also serve to exclude people (the “non-citizens”). 

In Europe today, various social phenomena challenge concepts of active citizenship. In some regions, ethnic conflict and aggressive nationalism prevent inclusive notions of citizenship from taking root. Across the continent, inflammatory discourses against “newcomers” call to exclusive – and racist –
interpretations of citizenship. The emergence of new collective identities, or identities formerly suppressed and now demanding recognition, together with demands for increasing personal autonomy and new interpretations of ‘equality’ all pose challenges for established notions of citizenship.

The weakening of social cohesion and solidarity among people, especially among generations, and mistrust of traditional political institutions require continuous rethinking and make education for democratic citizenship essential in order to favour inclusive notions of citizenship.

The Council of Europe member states, under the European Convention on Human Rights, are obliged to ensure the human rights and freedoms of everyone who is physically present in their territory without discrimination on any ground including citizenship, residency or immigration status. Similarly, the CRC incorporates the full range of human rights without discrimination of any kind, and thus recognises the state’s obligation to promote and protect the rights of each and every child present in their territory, regardless of their citizenship or nationality.

Children as citizens

Although children are legally citizens by birth or naturalisation, they are often neither recognised nor treated as citizens. “They tend to be either ignored as citizens or regarded in an adult-centric fashion as citizens of the future rather than of the present.”

Brian Howe¹ identifies two main reasons for this attitude: children’s economic dependency and psychological immaturity. He points out that other economically dependent groups, such as stay-at-home parents, retired people, or adults with disabilities, are not denied citizenship. He concludes that children have a right to citizenship as “citizenship is about inclusion, not economic independence”.

With the adoption of the CRC, children were explicitly recognised as subjects with rights for the first time in history. This means that children exercise their rights, in accordance with their evolving capacities and with support from their parents and care-givers, and they can claim the violation of their rights in front of competent bodies. This also applies to their responsibilities as citizens; like adults, children must respect the rights of others and must obey the law, but their level of responsibility and of accountability is appropriate to their age. The CRC declared children’s civil and political rights to be exercised in accordance with their age and maturity. Children may indeed lack the cognitive development, maturity and self-control of most adults. However, development is an on-going, lifelong process, and the cognitive development of children is accelerated when they are treated with respect and provided with age-appropriate opportunities to participate as citizens. Children are tomorrow’s voters and decision makers but the citizens of today. 
 

Should children be treated as citizens in the same way as adults? Or are they just “pre-citizens” or citizens-to-be?

The CRC recognises children’s needs and corresponding rights in three particular spheres: 

• Rights to protection – for example, from abuse, neglect, economic and sexual exploitation
• Rights to provision of services – for example, health care, social security, the means to an adequate standard of living
• Rights to participation in all decisions affecting them.

The CRC stipulates that these rights are to be exercised in accordance with the evolving capacities of the child, and this also applies to their responsibilities as citizens. 
 

In which ways can children exercise democratic citizenship in your community?

¹ Howe, Brian, ‘Citizenship Education for Child Citizens’, Canadian and International Education Journal, Vol. 34, no.1: 2005

Democracy works – if citizens are active

A democratic society is more than a democratically elected government and a system of institutions. Strong and independent local authorities, a mature and active civil society at national and local levels, and a democratic ethos in workplaces and schools are also key indicators of a healthy democratic society. Democracy should be seen as a practical process that needs to be nurtured every day and everywhere.

Democracy is able to function more effectively and serve the interests of its citizens better if people continuously monitor the government’s actions, exert pressure, and formulate their own demands. In modern societies, non-governmental organisations and the media often serve as key channels for citizens’ control. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) can advocate, educate and mobilise attention around major public issues and monitor the conduct of government or other governing bodies. 

Through NGOs, as well as through other grassroots or community associations, citizens including children can be the driving force and the principal agents of change for a more democratic world. 

The media have a very powerful role to play in democracies, communicating the news and opinions of various social actors and serving as a watchdog on behalf of citizens. In recent years, the role of social media and the appearance of “citizen journalists” and fake news engines have transformed the way that news is reported, and the way that it is received by the public. 

How healthy are our democracies? 

The health of democracy today is increasingly under question. In many European democracies, political discontent and scepticism are widespread, and many people believe that the political elite pay only lip service to “the will of the people”, and instead pursue their own interests. Concerns about the state of democracy are often based on levels of participation in elections, which has been declining across Europe – and across the world – in recent years. The turnout of young people at elections has traditionally been lower than for older generations, and this difference appears to be increasing. The general trend appears to be for young people to be increasingly removed from traditional democratic structures and institutions, such as political parties, trade unions or formal youth organisations. One way to tackle this issue, is to lower the voting age. For example, Austria and Malta allow voting at all political levels from the age of 16; Greece from the age of 17.

These are potentially serious problems, but there are other studies which indicate that young people engage in politics in more diverse ways than merely voting. The Internet and the possibilities it created for global communication and campaigns gave life to new forms of civic participation and young people can now mobilise quickly around issues using the power of social media, online petitions and other forms of digital communication.

Political opinion and participation should not be seen purely in party political and electoral terms: it is often expressed through arts and sport, through environmental protest, consumer boycotts, or creative forms of campaigning such as turning banks into temporary ‘hospitals’ or ‘libraries’. Participation
is a sign of a healthy democracy, that often starts at the local level.
 

How do the Internet and digital media influence democratic citizenship and the participation of children and young people?
 

Check whether the place where you live is a democracy 

• People are the ones to decide on things that are important to them. 
• In most cases, people do not make decisions directly, but they vote to elect the people who will represent them and their ideas at the moment of decision making. 
• The elected people take action for the benefit of all the people and do not take action in their own interest. So they need to clarify the reasons for their actions, and they are also responsible for them.
• People can take other actions - apart from voting- to influence decisions; for example, people can demonstrate if there are things they do not agree with, or take part in associations.
• In a country, the constitution² and other laws reflect the agreement among citizens - the people of the country - on the rules and principles to be follower.
• The decisions are taken according to what the majority of the citizens think, but the opinion of the minority is also taken into consideration and minority groups are protected. 

How and why should democracy be learned by children?

For democracy to continue to thrive, children must learn to value it as a way of life. The necessary skills for building democracy do not develop automatically in children. For that reason, developing democratic skills and a deep appreciation and understanding of democracy should be an important part of education from the earliest age possible. Educators play an important role in this process. They need to believe that democracy and democratic ways of life are possible both in society as a whole, and in children’s environments. Educators can help children understand that no democracy and no government is perfect, and that ideology must never be left unquestioned. In a healthy democracy, citizens question the motives of their leaders and monitor their activities. For this, educators also need to be able to apply democratic participation to their activities.

Education for democracy is education about an  inclusive society which recognises all members as equal, and equally worthy – regardless of their situation or status. Education for democracy is about encouraging and developing curiosity, discussion, critical thinking, and the capacity for constructive criticism. Children should learn about taking responsibility for their actions. If key concepts of democracy are to be understood by children, then living and acting in a democratic environment is the best and only educational approach. Democratic principles need to be embedded in school structures and in the curriculum and should be standard practice in school relations. Educators need to demonstrate respect for children by establishing children’s decision-making bodies and peer mediation opportunities, trusting children to organise their own events and empowering them to explore issues, to discuss and to formulate their opinion properly.

Are children in your school given an opportunity to make decisions about their life in school or about the education process?

Education for democratic citizenship (EDC) is the term coined by the Council of Europe for educational programmes that seek to ensure that children and young people become active and responsible citizens who are ready and able to contribute to the well-being of the society in which they live. EDC equips learners with knowledge, skills and understanding which empower them to: 

• exercise and defend their democratic rights and responsibilities on society; 
• value diversity
• play an active part in democratic life with a view to promoting and protecting democracy and the rule of law.

This approach differs from traditional courses of civic or citizenship education which concentrate on providing knowledge and focus more on obedience and fulfilment of responsibilities. Particular attention is now paid to promoting the participation of children by creating opportunities for children to participate in their own educational process. They can learn about their rights and responsibilities and enjoy the possibility of contributing to decisions at home, at school, in children’s clubs and in local organisations.

The Council of Europe Charter on EDC/HRE recognises that education for democratic citizenship and human rights education are closely inter-related and mutually supportive. Education for democratic citizenship focuses primarily on democratic rights and responsibilities and active participation, while
human rights education is concerned with the broader spectrum of human rights and fundamental freedoms in every aspect of people’s lives. The Charter asks member states to develop legislation and practices in order to provide “every person within their territory with the opportunity of education for democratic citizenship and human rights education”.

Escola da Ponte – Portugal
Escola da Ponte is a primary school in São Tomé de Negrelos, Portugal, which was started by the educator José Francisco Pacheco in 1976. The school follows principles of democratic education. The school is organised and run by students, mainly by means of a weekly deliberative assembly including students, teachers and parents. The assembly is organised and led by the students every Friday and aims to discuss the week just past and organise the week to come. Students are not divided into classes but into dynamic groups. They choose what to study, mainly on the basis of what they want to learn.

² A constitution defines how laws are made an protected and by whom, as well as the relations between the government and citizens

Continue reading  Relevant human rights instruments >>